Summary of the impact

The global transition from fossil fuels to green energy demands a significant increase in the supply of critical metals, creating a paradox where mining becomes essential for saving the planet. The Research School of Earth Sciences (RSES) at ANU has made substantial contributions to this imperative by advancing the discovery and sustainable management of critical mineral resources.

• Impact on Industry: Our groundbreaking research has identified regions with the potential for new giant ore deposits, catalysing exploration activities for an estimated $1 trillion in undiscovered metals. This work directly informs industry strategies, driving sustainable exploration practices.
• Impact on Government: We have engaged extensively with policymakers, presenting to the Australian Labor Party Caucus at the invitation of the Minister for Resources, as well as briefing senior public officials and diplomats. Additionally, we have delivered targeted short courses for government stakeholders and native title holders, fostering informed decision-making and equitable resource management.
• Impact on Academia: Our fundamental research has resulted in highly cited publications, competitive grants totalling nearly $7 million since 2020, and a patent set to be commercialized by an ANU spin-out company. These achievements underscore our leadership in advancing the science of critical resources.
• Impact on Education: We have trained 16 PhD candidates and 14 Master’s/Honours students in critical resource studies, equipping the next generation of scientists and industry leaders with the skills needed to meet future challenges. Our newly launched ARC ITTC on Critical Resources for the Future further solidifies our commitment to addressing this global priority.

By integrating innovative research, industry engagement, and education, RSES is driving the sustainable discovery and management of critical minerals, playing a pivotal role in supporting the global transition to a green energy future.

Underpinning research

The transition from fossil fuels to green energy technologies (e.g., batteries, magnets), the advancement of modern industries (communication, computing, aerospace), and the robust functioning of national security (ensuring market independence) all demand a dramatic increase in the supply of critical minerals. These are materials essential for economic stability yet subject to significant supply risks. Critical minerals lists vary with country, time, and economic demand but consistently include rare earth elements (REE), lithium (Li), and cobalt (Co). As the European Commission highlighted in 2022, “Lithium and rare earths will soon be more important than oil and gas. Our demand for rare earths alone will increase fivefold by 2030.” Securing a stable, responsible supply of these elements is vital for sustaining society and mitigating the impacts of climate change. However, global production - particularly for REE - is dominated by China, posing substantial geopolitical risks to supply chains. Australia, with its vast resources and potential for environmentally and socially responsible mining (ESG), is poised to play a leading role in addressing this challenge.

The rise of RSES as a leader in critical minerals research is underpinned by decades of foundational work in Earth sciences. RSES houses the world’s largest and best-equipped laboratories for experimental geoscience, enabling groundbreaking research into how critical metals behave under geological conditions.

Our advanced experimental infrastructure allows researchers to replicate the high-temperature and high-pressure environments of Earth’s crust and mantle, offering unparalleled insights into the processes that concentrate critical metals into economically viable deposits. This capability is unique within Australia and is globally recognized as world leading. Furthermore, ANU serves as a node of the AuScope Geochemistry Network, hosting facilities such as the SHRIMP (Sensitive High-Resolution Ion Microprobe), which provide outstanding capabilities for analysing and dating critical mineral deposits. Since initiating research in critical minerals in 2015, RSES has supported dozens of PhD, Master’s, Honours, and undergraduate students in projects advancing this field.

Extending from laboratory investigations to larger geological contexts, the distribution of critical mineral resources is heavily influenced by the structure of the Australian continent, much of which lies hidden beneath the surface. Geophysics at RSES is at the forefront of imaging these concealed structures. Over several decades, RSES (alongside NCRIS partners at AuScope) has developed geophysical methods and instrumentation, designed and deployed seismic arrays, undertaken laboratory experiments on the velocity of seismic waves through rocks, and developed sophisticated data analysis methods to image the crust and lithosphere. Through combination of these techniques with thermobarometric analyses of mantle xenoliths, we have developed the first probabilistic, high-resolution maps of lithospheric structure for use in exploration. Without this fundamental work the relationship between giant metal deposits and the edges of cratons could not have been discovered, which has led to the estimation of approximately $1 trillion worth of undiscovered metals in these regions, directly informing exploration strategies and driving industry investment.

By combining experimental geoscience, cutting-edge analytical techniques, and advanced geophysical imaging, RSES is uniquely positioned to advance the discovery, understanding, and sustainable development of critical mineral resources, securing Australia’s role as a responsible global supplier of resources for the green energy transition.

References to the research

Selected Outputs

• M.J. Hoggard et al., Global distribution of sediment-hosted metals controlled by craton edge stability, Nature Geoscience, 13, 504-510, doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0593-2 (2020).
• A.J. Berry, Recovering Rare Earth Elements (A process for recovering rare earth elements from phosphate ores such as monazite, xenotime and apatite), Patent PCT/AU2023/050032 (2023).
• M. Anenburg et al., Rare earth element mobility in and around carbonatites controlled by sodium, potassium, and silica. Science Advances, 6; doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abb6570 (2020).
• M. Cherdantseva et al., Carbonated magmatic systems: Still or sparkling. Science Advances, 10; doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adl3127 (2024).
• L.P. Zeng et al., The role of iron-rich hydrosaline liquids in the formation of Kiruna-type iron oxide–apatite deposits, Science Advances, 10; doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adk2174 (2024).
• L.A. Miller et al., The effect of composition, temperature and pressure on the oxidation state and coordination environment of copper in silicate melts, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 364, 129-147; doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2023.07.021 (2024).

Funding

• Berry, Mavrogenes, Yaxley, McGaughey (RSB) plus 13 CIs from UWQ, UAdelaide and UQ, Centre in Critical Resources for the Future, Australian Research Council ITTC, 2024-2029, $10 million ($5 million ARC, $5 million Partner Organisations; ~25% to ANU). https://criticalresources.org.au/.
• Mavrogenes plus CI from UWA, The Rare Earth Potential of the Gascoyne Region of Western Australia, Australian Research Council Linkage, 2024-2027, $1.295 million ($785,000 ARC, $510,000 Partner Organisations; 50% to ANU).
• Berry, Brine Mining, Rio Tinto Centre for Future Materials, 2025-2028, $1.03 million (100% to ANU).
• Anenburg, Extraction of the critical rare earth elements from mine waste Australian Research Council
  Industrial Fellowship Program, 2024-2027, $780,000 (100% to ANU).
• Yaxley, Berry plus 2 CIs from UAdelaide, The critical metal niobium: from source to commodity, Australian Research Council Discovery Grant, 2024-2027, $670,000 (~70% to ANU).
• Berry, Yaxley plus 2 CIs from UAdelaide, The geochemistry of rare earth elements in carbonate melts, Australian Research Council Discovery Grant, 2020-2023, $386,000 (~80% to ANU).
• Mavrogenes, Davies plus CIs from UAdelaide and UQ, Realising Australia’s rare earth resource potential, Australian Research Council Linkage, 2020-2023, $873,000 ($573,000 ARC, $300,000 Partner organisations; 40% to ANU).
• Mavrogenes, Critical metals in Australian sphalerites, Geoscience Australia, 2024-2025, $600,000 (100% to ANU).
• Eakin, Sedimentary thickness across Australia from passive seismic methods Sedimentary thickness across Australia from passive seismic methods. Geoscience Australia, 2022-2024. $150,000 (100% to ANU).
• Eakin, Miller et al. Investigating seismic anisotropy, seismicity, and structure beneath the WA-Array GSWA, 2023-2026, $665,755 (100% to ANU).
• Hoggard, Sedimentary basins: Windows into the dynamics of Australian lithosphere, Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award, 2022-2025, $658,000 (100% to ANU).
• 2007-2025 Budget for multiple contract years for AuScope seismic instrumentation and open data access. NCRIS, Australian Department of Education. ~$28M.
• 2014-2025 Budget for multiple contract years for AuScope Simulation Analysis Modeling Program for developing software for Earth processes. NCRIS, Australian Department of Education ~$6M.

Details of the impact

In collaboration with Geoscience Australia (GA),RSES researchers established a tectonic link to the location of giant metal deposits, enabling the prediction of deposits buried beneath the surface. This research has directly influenced the acquisition of over 300,000 km² of new tenements in Australia, spurring renewed interest from major global exploration companies such as Anglo American. Independent analysis by ACIL Allen valued the potential undiscovered metals in Australia at $0.7–1.2 trillion (1). This groundbreaking work became a cornerstone of the government’s 2020 decision to extend the Exploring for the Future (EFTF) program with a $125 million investment (2). EFTF was so successful that the government has announced a $3.4 billion pre-competitive geoscience program called Resourcing Australia’s Prosperity that will run for the next 35 years, providing a platform for continued collaboration between RSES and GA for decades to come.

Engaging Policymakers and Diplomats

RSES researchers have actively engaged with government and industry stakeholders to promote the importance of rare earth elements (REE) and critical minerals:

• Policy Presentations: Delivered “REE for Dummies” to the Australian Labor Party Caucus at Parliament House (June 24, 2024, at the invitation of the Chief of Staff for the Minister of Resources) and to senior public officials, including SES1 executives from DISR, DFAT, Treasury, Finance, and Defense, at the National Security College at ANU (Feb 22, Oct 1, Aug 27, Nov 1, 2024).
  • Diplomatic Outreach:Hosted the “Diplomatic Roundtable” at ANU in July 2023, connecting members of the diplomatic community with Australian REE providers to strengthen international partnerships.
  • Industry Conferences: Organized REECON 2022 and 2023 (3), the first Australian conferences uniting industry, government, and academia to discuss rare earth element projects. Notable speakers included the Minister for Resources, Australia’s Chief Scientist, and representatives from mining companies with a combined market capitalization exceeding $200 billion.

Public Engagement

Professor John Mavrogenes appeared on the widely viewed ABC Four Corners episode, “Mining for a Climate Solution: Why Going Renewable Means Getting Our Hands Dirty” (viewed over 500,000 times online), bringing public attention to the critical role of mining in addressing climate change challenges (4, 5).

Innovations in REE Extraction

Our fundamental research into the geological formation of rare earth element minerals provided insights that facilitated the development of novel extraction techniques. This led to the patent “Recovering Rare Earth Elements”(PCT AU2023/050032), filed in Australia, the USA, China, South Africa, India, Madagascar, and Malaysia. A spin-out company, with ANU proposed as a 10% shareholder, has been established to commercialize this intellectual property, ensuring the practical application of our discoveries.

Discovering the Julimar Deposit

RSES’s decades-long commitment to imaging the Australian continent contributed to the discovery of the Julimar polymetallic deposit, 75 km northeast of Perth, Western Australia (6). Buried beneath the surface, this deposit includes an estimated 530,000 tonnes of nickel (Ni), 330,000 tonnes of copper (Cu), 53,000 tonnes of cobalt (Co) and 10 million ounces of platinum group elements (PGE), including palladium, platinum, and gold. Chalice Mining publicly (7) credited tools that drew heavily on RSES’s seismic datasets, as the catalyst for acquiring the exploration tenement. Karol Czarnota, head of Geoscience Australia’s EFTF program, noted, “ANU seismic datasets helped map the geological architecture and processes within the Earth around Julimar. Integrating this architectural work with GA’s pre-competitive datasets was critical to the quality of the assessment.” This integration significantly reduced the search space for similar deposits and increased the likelihood of future discoveries.

Academic Excellence in This Area

RSES has made substantial academic contributions:

• Four high-impact papers since 2020 with over 100 citations each, including three in Science Advances and one in Nature Geoscience.
• Prestigious recognitions, including: (i) Joe Harms Medal (2023): Awarded to Professor John Mavrogenes for his contributions to the discovery of ore deposits and advancing knowledge about their formation; (ii) Distinguished Fellow of the Geological Society of Australia (2021): Awarded to Greg Yaxley in recognition of his outstanding contributions to geoscience; (iii) Mark Hoggard won the European Geoscience Union’s Outstanding Early-Career Researcher Award;in 2021 for his research on sediment-hosted base metal deposits.

Through these achievements, RSES continues to push the boundaries of critical mineral research and deliver tangible societal, economic, and environmental benefits.

Where next

The launch of the ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre (ITTC) in Critical Resources by Minister Madeleine King in November marked the beginning of a transformative phase for critical minerals research at ANU. This initiative will catalyse a surge of activity, fostering strong collaborations with industry and partner organizations to address pressing challenges in resource discovery and management.

Complementing this effort is the establishment of the Rio Tinto Centre for Future Materials, which has already awarded $1 million to RSES as part of a nearly $5 million commitment to ANU in 2024 (with similar funding expected for the next 9 years). This centre will tackle a series of grand challenges in critical materials, beginning with copper - essential for electrification and a cornerstone of the green energy transition. Future grand challenges will expand to other critical minerals, positioning RSES at the forefront of globally significant resource innovation.

The Rio Tinto Centre brings together interdisciplinary expertise from across ANU, including the First Nations Portfolio, Crawford School of Public Policy, Research School of Social Sciences, and the College of Science, to address critical resource issues holistically. This collaboration has already delivered outcomes such as a Short Course on Critical Minerals in November, facilitated by the National Security College.

Designed for government officials and native title representatives, the course aims to foster informed, inclusive decision-making and is planned to become a recurring activity.

RSES also continues to organize and host REECON, Australia’s premier critical minerals conference, which unites academia and industry to advance knowledge and innovation in this vital field. These efforts underscore ANU’s ambition to become the academic leader in all aspects of critical minerals research, from geology and governance to ESG (environmental, social, and governance) practices and Indigenous engagement.

RSES geophysics plays a critical role in advancing the discovery of future mineral deposits. Through the ongoing deployment of seismometers and the development of cutting-edge imaging techniques, RSES researchers can map Earth’s subsurface in unprecedented detail. These innovations allow scientists to identify the geological structures and pathways associated with giant ore deposits, providing essential insights for exploration in regions where deposits are concealed beneath the surface. This integration of geophysical data with geological and geochemical models enhances the accuracy of predictions and reduces the search space for critical minerals.

Building on significant ARC and industry funding, RSES remains at the forefront of fundamental and applied geological research, powered by its globally unique experimental and facilities. These resources enable foundational discoveries such as the recently patented technique for rare earth element (REE) extraction. Filed in multiple countries, including Australia, the USA, and China, this innovation is set to be commercialized by the spin-out company Reverse Ore Corporation, demonstrating the real-world impact of RSES’s pioneering work.

As RSES advances its research agenda, it is uniquely positioned to lead the sustainable development of critical minerals, driving both national and global efforts to secure the resources needed for the green energy transition and beyond.

Demonstrated alignment with school, university and national priorities

Critical minerals have been recognized as a national priority by the Australian Government. At the Australian Critical Minerals Summit in November 2022, Treasurer Jim Chalmers stated, “Critical minerals could be the opportunity of the century… that we cannot miss or mishandle.” This sentiment is echoed in Australia’s Critical Minerals Strategy, which seeks to “leverage growing global demand and develop a thriving and durable Australian critical minerals sector - one that contributes to the national security and economic prosperity of Australia and the Indo-Pacific region.” Federal support includes a $1 billion allocation to the Value Adding in Resources Fund (part of the National Reconstruction Fund) and $2 billion for the Critical Minerals Facility, underscoring the government’s commitment to this sector.

At ANU, critical minerals research is a key focus within the ANU Strategic Plan 2021–2025, which highlights “critical minerals” as a major area of research focus. Similarly, the RSES Strategic Plan (2022–2027) prioritizes efforts to address “key global challenges… critical resources for the 21st century and beyond.” In recognition of this alignment, RSES identified the recruitment of two new academic positions in Critical Minerals as the “highest priority” during 2024 succession planning, to further solidify its leadership in this field.